Category: Traditional Water Systems

Water as a defence line comprised of a system of waterworks for inundating and military elements for troops.

Huadong Zhu
2019

The New Dutch Waterline was built to defend Holland, the west part of the Netherlands and it is 85 km long. Large areas of agricultural land (polders) were flooded with a layer of approximately 40-60 cm of water. The traditional drainage system of the polder landscape was transformed into a 4 km wide defence line.

Pumps and sluices guide the water out of the deep lying polders, in war-time the water could be directed into the polder. In a normal situation the water table is higher during winter. During a dry summer, water needs to be taken in from the boezem system. The boezem system is the discharge water network which brings the polder water from into the outer water. The whole water system can be set in motion by switching the pumping stations on and off or changing the direction of the water flow.

Normally the land is drained for agricultural use. After peat digging, used as fuel the land turned into a lake a became useless. By draining the inner lakes, new, deeper lake-bed polders were created. During the war period, the polders were transformed into lakes again and could not be crossed by enemies on foot or by horse.

During normal times, the water is pumped out into the river, part of the boezem system. During war times, the waterworks can switch the direction and pump the water into the polder. Today they pump water into the polders during dry summers.

The existing water management in a polder is based on an independent managed water level. The system consisted of mills, later replaced by pumping stations and the sluices. The polders have different water levels. During the war the area was flooded polder by polder.

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Weiyuan agriculture system in
Jianghan Plain, Central Hubei Province, China.

Houxuan Zhang
2025

The Weiyuan system is primarily distributed across the low-lying floodplains of central and southern China, particularly in the Jianghan Plain between the Yangtze and Han Rivers. This region receives extensive upstream runoff from the Sichuan Basin and middle Yangtze tributaries, resulting in prolonged summer flooding during the monsoon season. Over thousands of years, repeated overbank flows deposited nutrient-rich sediments across the plain, creating fertile but flood-prone land. Early human settlements gradually responded by building small embankments (wei) to isolate manageable units of land, followed by drainage and internal canal construction to create enclosed agricultural fields (yuan).

These spatial interventions formed a dynamic relationship between hydrological patterns and land use, allowing for controlled cultivation within an inherently unstable flood landscape. The accumulation of silt not only enriched the soil but also changed local topography, prompting further adaptation.

Agricultural production in the Weiyuan system was shaped by both collective labor and adaptive water management practices. Farmers worked together to construct and maintain embankments, canals, and sluices, enabling controlled irrigation and drainage. Traditional techniques such as using wooden waterwheels to lift river water into the fields were widespread, particularly during dry periods.

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At the center of each embanked unit (wei), slightly elevated ground known as gaotian (high fields) formed the core agricultural zone. These areas, either naturally raised or gradually built up through years of sedimentation and tillage, were relatively dry and stable. Farmers used them for intensive grain cultivation, especially wheat, cotton, and later hybrid rice.

Surrounding the gaotian, juru zones formed a transitional belt that responded quickly to seasonal rainfall and upstream backflow. These areas held water longer than the high fields but remained accessible and cultivable in low-water periods. Farmers adapted by planting fast-growing or water-tolerant crops such as early rice or lotus, or by leaving them temporarily fallow to serve as runoff buffers. The juru thus absorbed hydrological fluctuation, functioning as flexible “lungs” between the more fixed inner core and the flood-exposed periphery. They were not formally enclosed, yet their role in storing, delaying, and diffusing water made them critical to the internal water regulation of each unit.

The Indian Khadin Water System in
Jaisalmer District, Rajasthan, India.

Charlotte Delobbe
2024

Originating from the Jaisalmer District in Rajasthan, India, the Khadin works in arid areas characterized by high temperatures, sandy soil and water scarcity. It reintroduces the natural water cycle by a rain harvesting technique for agricultural purposes. The district of Jaisalmer is characterized by dunes or sand hills over 70% of its surface area (Kolarkar, Murthy & Singh, 1983). It includes the Thar Desert on its western part which covers 27.8 millions hectares in India (Saxena, 2017). It climate is characterized by meagre rainfall of one rainseason and a long dry season which can reach high temperatures.

The natural conditions of this area mean agriculture is precarious for local villages and irrigation limited by water scarcity (Saxena, 2017). Therefore, systems must rely on “palar” water (rainfall) to design an optimal use of water. Khadins are implemented in slopes and depression areas with suitable runoff capacity to collect and store “palar” water (Prasad & Mertia, 2004). Its main characteristics are a large earthen embankment and a concrete wall with contains a spillway and sluice at its lowest level to let go of excess “deir” water (surface water) (Kolarkar, Murthy & Singh, 1983). Khadins are located nearby villages as they serve as a agricultural practices to increase food source production. Shallow dug wells around khadins take advantage of the “wakar” water (groundwater) recharge to give access to drinking water (Kolarkar, Murthy & Singh, 1983). Thanks to its implementation, they have increased food production from 3-11% to 50-70% enabling farmers’ prosperity (Hussain, Husain & Arif, 2014).

Wakar, Palar, and Deir water are important denominations of water states. In order, they means: groundwater, rainfall and surface water. There are also many dugwells shapes and names depending on the size, ownership and location. For instance: a “kua” is an individual well, a “kohar” belongs to the community, “Sagar-ka-hua” is a 60 meters deep well, “Sajay-ka-hua” relies on the groundwater recharge of a watershed, and many other names (Saxena, 2017). All these denominations inform us of the strong relationship people have with the different facets of water.

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The seasonal rythms is dependant of the one rain season and an all year round dry season. As local groundwater does not suffice to subtain local crops and villages, the khadin collects as much water as possible.

During the harvest season, khadins connect communities. Households shares are fixed and they sell the production at the local market. Sometimes they use it as trade for services. For instance, marriage performances, woodwork for the fences, pottery, etc (Kisantak.in, 023b)

The drained fields of Jalapão in wetlands of Cerrado Biome in Brazil.

Camila Rosado
2025

The system originated in the Quilombola communities of the remote Jalapão region, a conservation unit in Brazil since 2001. Quilombola refers to an Afro-Brazilian ethnic group descended from enslaved people who escaped the colonial plantation system. These communities found refuge in isolated areas, far from European influence, where they established self-sustaining lifestyles largely dependent on natural resources. For nearly two centuries, their livelihood has depended on the offerings of the Cerrado Biome and the region’s geographical conditions.

The process of the system, from the start to maintenance, requires intense human involvement, such as deep knowledge of the geography, natural conditions of the place, and communal effort. The drainage technique has been developed based on empirical experience from the local farmers, who observed the natural water flow of a flooded gallery forest and passed it on through generations. The field’s primary purpose is to provide food, but it also connects people to the socio-ecological relevance of the Veredas (wetlands). The communities in Jalapão become known for their rich craft that utilizes the grass Capim-Dourado from the Veredas, and the fiber of the Buriti palm tree.

Veredas and seasonally flooded gallery forests are crucial in maintaining consistent water resources, especially during dry periods in Cerrado’s biome. In that sense, the drained fields are essential as they allow food production during the dry season.

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The fields are cultivated within Veredas (wetlands) or flooded gallery forests, areas with peat-rich soil. Utilizing these wetlands for agriculture led to the development of a method involving ditch digging for drainage, cultivation, and allowing fields to regenerate.
The system forms the basis of the agricultural practice of this region and continues to be a key element of the local farming system. It does not count with a complex structure, however, it comprises a sophisticated rotation system based on the knowledge of the land condition and capacity of the soil to recover.

During the cultivation period of the fields, some native tree species are preserved, among which the Buriti palm (Mauritia flexuosa) stands out for its profound ecological and cultural significance. Referred to as the “tree of life,” in indigenous cultures, the Buriti plays a crucial role in maintaining wetland ecosystems.

Terpen Water System in Friesland, Netherlands.

Rafael Gridelli
2024

The northern part of the Netherlands developed into a salt marsh, as water gathered in the low, flat areas. Six thousand years ago (Vos, 2000), not only did the sea level rise, but also the amount of sedimentation. The increase in sediment resulted in the creation of salt marsh ridges. These ridges developed during high water peaks, when floods reached inland areas where water was calmer, and sediment would settle, creating layers of sediment deposit. These salt marsh ridges eventually became high enough to only flood during storm surges. The hinterland of these salt marsh ridges contained fertile soil suitable for cattle to pasture. With it, first human settlement arose. A terp was created by artificially elevating these ridges with local (waste) material like sediment, earth, wood, and manure, protecting the settlers from storm surges (Nieuwhof, 2018). These settlements proved successful, and the hills started to expand. Single terpen agglomerated to neighboring terpen, creating terpen villages. The sea level continued to rise, as the amount of sedimentation did. While villages were heightened to keep up with the rising sea level, sediment deposits continued, expanding the coastline towards the north. This provided new salt marsh ridges where settlements could evolve. Until then, terpen were the only way to live safely in a tidal area.

The terp provided safety for its inhabitants, but once the high tide covered the land, residents had to rely on their provision and the provision of others. Ditches were dug to increase seawater discharge from the surrounding landscape once the sea retired. Often, a ring ditch was built around a terp; it provided a fast discharge of salt water and reduced the impact of waves hitting the terp during storm surges. The system of ditches had pros and cons as it discharged water quicker, but simultaneously made the land more vulnerable as water could enter easier, increasing erosion.

Not everything could be grown or made on terpen, some products were only available inland, which made in inhabitants of terpen excellent traders (De Ruyter, 2016).

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Life on a terp was life in interaction with the sea. With human settlement and forthcoming agricultural practices, salt water threatened crops and cattle. To get rid of salt water from the landscape after storm surges, ditches were dug to accelerate saltwater discharge. Implementing ditches provided another benefit: it reduced erosion of the terp as it absorbed energy from incoming waves. With high tide, water containing sediment was brought to land. This was key to the area’s existence as the sea level rose. With sediment deposition, the coast. Summer dikes provided a way to trap more sediment. They were used to accrete fertile sediment and protect freshwater puddles from high tide. Since humans and cattle depend on freshwater, different methods were used to gather fresh water. Most of it was provided by rain, cached in dobben on top of terpen. Gutters increased fresh water supply from roofs.

The traditional Saga irrigation system in Saga city, Kyushu Region, Japan.

Kanako Inai
2025

The Tsukushi Plain stretches about 30 to 40 kilometers from the Ariake Sea, with an elevation of only 5 to 6 meters above sea level. This vast plain was formed by the tidal fluctuations of the Ariake Sea, the sediment carried by rivers from the surrounding mountains, and the land reclamation by humans. The Ariake Sea has the largest tidal range in Japan, with a difference between high and low tide that can exceed 6 meters.

Approximately 6,000 years ago, the coastline was about 20 kilometers further from its current location. Over time, rivers deposited sediment, raising the riverbeds, and flooding created new channels, gradually expanding the plain. Around the 1600s (the focus period of this report), artificial land reclamation began in earnest to expand agricultural land, further shaping the present-day Tsukushi Plain.

The water network within Saga City has been ingeniously designed and functions as a cohesive, integrated water management system that extends from the mountain base to the Ariake Sea.

Saga City lacked a large river capable of sufficiently supplying water. Around 1600, Naridomi Hyōgo Shigeyasu constructed the Ishii sluice on the Kase River to address this issue. It allowed drawing water to the castle town via the Tafuse River from the Kase River. By linking the Tafuse River and other secondary rivers sourced from the surrounding mountains to an intricate network of canals, he aimed to resolve its water shortages.

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The canals were multi-functional waterways closely connected to people’s daily lives. Essential to everyday life, these canals were managed collectively by the local community, with regular dredging and cleaning activities. Fish and aquatic plant seeds harvested from the canals were popular ingredients for cooking, while the dredged mud was spread over paddy fields as fertilizer. There was a sustainable cycle in which human maintenance and the natural environment interacted.

Saaidam flood-irrigation system in
the Northern Cape, South Africa.

Nicola Vollmer
2025

The Hantam is known for its extremes: intense heat, cold, drought, and muted landscape punctuated by seasonal bursts of colour and life (Karoo-South Africa, n.d.). In this challenging environment, infrequent yet powerful river floods occur. For generations, residents have sought to survive here by capturing rainwater and groundwater (Palmer, 1966). The Saaidamme — a flood-irrigation system — emerged from this need, enabling farmers to harness floodwaters to sustain crops during extended dry periods. These farms are located in the semi-desert region of South Africa known as the Karoo (Karoo-South Africa, n.d.). The Karoo is a place with an incredible history, filled with stories and knowledge of how people have survived and flourished in a region often described as a “Place of Great Dryness” (The Great Karoo, 2017).

The Hantamsrivier originates in the Hantams Mountains and is further fed by runoff from the surrounding hills (de Klerk, 2024). Many farmers are located along the river and therefore must share its waters. It is often the case that the volume of water is sufficient to fully irrigate one farmer’s land but not enough to reach the furthest farm (de Klerk, 2024). If the river does reach the downstream farm, it is channelled through a series of embankments guiding the flow of the river into the system (uitkeerwalle), water channels (voore), and sluices (sluise) into the crop-dams (saaidamme). During this process, which can take several hours, the farmer and farm workers must attend to the various waterworks, ensuring a steady flow of water and the proper filling of the saaidamme (Visagie, 2024). Any excess water is released into overflow areas and returned to the Hantamsrivier.

This system is unique due to its unpredictability, the close interdependence between humans and nature, and the ability to survive and flourish in an otherwise harsh environment.

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This practice of slowing, diverting, and storing floodwaters has enhanced agricultural productivity by transforming floods from a threat into a valuable resource. The layout and formation of each individual saaidam farm are largely determined by the surrounding landscape. Whether situated between valleys or on expansive open plains, the underlying principle remains consistent across all case studies.

A seasonal water system in Poyang Lake, China.

Antong Huang
2024

Poyang Lake is a throughout, seasonal lake located in Jiangxi Province, China. The hydrological conditions of Poyang Lake are driven by five major tributaries, the Gan, Fu, Xin, Rao, and Xiu Rivers, and the Yangtze River, one of the two most important rivers in China. Runoff of the Poyang Lake basin is mainly from the five major tributaries, originating from the mountains surrounding Poyang Lake and recharged by precipitation. Among them, the Gan River provides more than 40% of the water volume of Poyang Lake, accounting for the largest proportion. Most of the rivers in Jiangxi Province, including the five major tributaries, flow through Poyang Lake to the Yangtze River. Therefore, as the catchment center of its watershed, Poyang Lake controls the water balance between the watershed and the Yangtze River.

Poyang Lake is characterized by seasonal cyclic water level changes, leading to varying degrees of exposure of the lake bottom terrain and the manifestation of different water areas. In China, this seasonal variation is described as “high water is a lake, low water is a river” or “flood water is one piece, dry water is one line”. Based on these characteristics, the wet season is defined from April to October, with the water level peaking in July, while the dry season is defined from October to April, with the water level dropping to its lowest in January.

The underlying cause of this seasonal fluctuation lies in the change in precipitation and the subsequent change in runoff influenced by the monsoon in the Poyang Lake Basin. During winter, the decrease in precipitation leads to a reduction in the amount of water from the five major tributaries, with the water flowing directly into the Yangtze River through the deepest fluvial area of the lake bed. Conversely, during summer, with the precipitation increasing, the volume of water from the five tributaries rises, coupled with a larger flow in the Yangtze River. Consequently, water converges at Poyang Lake, leading to a rapid expansion of the water surface within a short period.

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Based on the integrated co-operation between the hydrological condition, the topography of the lake bottom, the landscape types and the time cycle of production activities, the Poyang Lake area has developed its unique annual seasonal cycle, which consists of three main landscape components (polder, sub-lake and wetland), and three sub-production-cycles (agriculture, fishery and animal husbandry). Meanwhile, harmony with the wintering behavior of migratory birds is also considered.

Philippi Peatland polder system in
Philippi Park, northern Greece.

Foteini Katavelaki
2024

The Philippi peatland (Tenagi Philippi) is a lowland area located in the center of Philippi Park, where agriculture serves as the principal economic driver and primary source of employment. The “Philippi Park” is defined as the rural-cultural environment located between the archaeological site of Philippi and the archaeological site of Amphipolis, encompassing a valley of 100,000 hectares within the boundaries of Mount Pangaion, Symvolon, Falakro, Menoikio, and Orvilos. The Philippi Park area includes 85 settlements, 7 municipalities, and 2 regions.

The area features a network of streams and rivers primarily flowing from north and northeast to the west. These watercourses don’t flow steadily all the time. They can change a lot, especially during the rainy season. The most significant river in the region, known for its constant flow, is the Angitis River. It originates from the Aggitis Cave at the foothills of Falakro. Agia Varvara, sourced within the city of Drama, ensures a steady supply of water that discharges into the Doxato basin. The zigaktis River, with the springs of Kefalari also contributes to the Philippi basin’s water supply, albeit to a lesser extent. Some atmospheric precipitation infiltrates into the ground and refills underground aquifers, further enhancing the region’s water resources. For irrigation purposes, shallow wells are commonly used in the region. In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the use of underground water resources to meet agricultural needs and boost production. But, there are still problems because this water isn’t enough for all the needs.

The Philippi plain was until recently covered by a marsh, which was drained between 1931 and 1940. Its creation goes back to prehistory and is explained by the morphology of the plain itself: it is surrounded on all sides by medium and high mountain ranges (Pangaeo, Menoikio, Falakro, Lekanis Mountains, Symbolo, with an altitude of 800 to 2000 m.) while in the center the altitude varies only between 45 and 80 m from the sea.

Circular Stories

The water system in the region exhibits circularity, beginning with atmospheric precipitation that infiltrates the ground, replenishing underground aquifers and contributing to stream and river flow. In the Philippi Peatland, water comes mainly from springs and rivers and is directed through gravity into a network of artificial horizontal and vertical canals. These canals serve a dual purpose: assisting with drainage and facilitating irrigation for cultivated fields. The water from these canals eventually merges into the larger Angitis River, which flows into the Aegean Sea. Along the waterways, water sluices help regulate the flow of water resources. Thus, the system forms a circular loop, starting with atmospheric rainfall, circulating through groundwater and surface water sources, and returning to the sea, while supporting crops and ecosystems along the way.

Mulberry Dike-fish ponds in
Sangyuanwei, China.

Xiaolei Ma
2025

The Pearl River Delta (PRD) region represents a remarkable testament to the dynamic interplay of geological and hydrological forces, having gradually evolved from an ancient shallow bay. The Sangyuanwei area, in particular, is situated at a crucial geographical nexus within this complex deltaic system. It lies precisely at the confluence where powerful riverine deposition meets and interacts with the dynamic influences of the sea. This continuous and intricate interplay of fluvial and marine processes has resulted in a unique and exceptionally fertile landscape. This distinctive environment, marked by its rich, mixed soil foundation, has historically provided an ideal basis for intensive agricultural development, supporting a thriving agricultural economy for centuries.

The landscape is primarily shaped by the interplay of fluvial alluvial plains and marine-alluvial plains, formed by continuous sediment deposition. These specific natural conditions—including ample water availability, a flat elevation prone to inundation, and the unique geomorphology—collectively present a complex and fundamental challenge: how to effectively adapt to and sustainably develop this unique and historically significant land.

The excavation of fish ponds and the construction of dikes form a clever cycle in the Pearl River Delta’s pond-dike agricultural ecosystem. Nutrient-rich soil dug from the ponds is ingeniously used to build surrounding dikes that rise above the water.

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Sangyuanwei is not only one of the most representative hydraulic engineering and ecological agricultural areas in the Pearl River Delta, but also a “water infrastructure system” deeply embedded in local society, culture, and daily life. Here, water is not only essential for survival—it also shapes settlement patterns, everyday lifestyles, belief systems, and festival customs, forming the spiritual core of Lingnan water-town culture.
The settlement patterns of Sangyuanwei depend on its water networks and dikes. Villages align with rivers and highlands to avoid floods. Dense waterways and dike-pond systems support irrigation, daily life, and transportation. Water routes connect villages and towns, fostering trade, cultural exchange, and community gatherings.

On the dikes, farmers grew a wide variety of crops, including mulberries, bananas, sugarcane, vegetables, and medicinal herbs. This plant diversity not only enhanced biodiversity but also created microhabitats for insects, birds, and beneficial microorganisms. The diverse vegetation on the dikes functioned as ecological buffers, filtering pollutants and stabilizing the soil, thus maintaining water quality in the adjacent ponds. Furthermore, the organic waste from the crops and dike vegetation was often recycled as feed or fertilizer in the system, forming a closed-loop ecological cycle.